Airplane Invented

The Wright brothers were born in Millville, Indiana and as children the made simple mechanical toys. They contiuned to make things and in 1888 they built a large printing press. The next year they began to publish "West Side News" in Dayton, Ohio. In 1892 they opened up a bicycle repair shop and showroom and soon began assembling bikes with their own tools.

In September of 1900 they tested their own glider based on the writings of the German engineer Otto Lilienthal. They recorded their findings and found out that the info they were working with was wrong. The following year they tested the effect of air pressure on more than 200 different wing surfaces. By 1902 they conclued that planes could be best balanced by pilots rather than the built-in engineering devices they originally thought.

In 1903 the brothers created their first propeller and it was 35% more effective than the other propellers available at the time. Next they built a machine with a 12 horse power motor and combining this with the propeller they made the first powered airplan flight in history.

In 1908 Wilbur Wright se distance and altitude records in France. In the same year the brothers produced a plane that could fly for 10 minutes at a speed of 64km/h for the U.S. Army Signal Corps.

In September of 1908 Orville Wright established many records when he flew the first Wright plane made under government contract for 62 minutes, completing 57 circles at an altitude of 36.6m.

Planes are something that must have been extremely difficult to invent. Think about it, flying. Nothing holding you up. I'm glad I wasn't the people inventing them. Planes were and still are a very large part of this century and last. without them we could travel to visit other countries as easily. I'm glad they created the plane even though I don't want to get on one.

Wategate Scandal

On June 17, 1972 a burglary occurred in Washington D.C. which had worldwide importance. Five people, all members of the "Plumbers" a anti-Castro Cuban refugee group including former FBI and CIA agents, broke into the Democratic National Headquarters to bug the telephones. The name of were they broke in was known as the Watergate Hotel.

The Plumber were a unit created and maintained by the White House with the purpose of 'fixing leaks' in the administration. They immediately went after Daniel Ellsberg who handed over secret Pentagon report concerning the history of the war to the New York Times who in turn published them. It was thought if the papers in publication could not be stopped the next best thing would be to discredit the man who provided the papers. This involved breaking into Ellsberg's office to dig up any information they could.

The next job was to derail the Democratic party in the upcoming election. On June 17th the small group of men broke into the DNC Headquarters to bug the phones and find any information in the offices. A security guard saw the break in and called police who quickly took the burglars into custody.

For the few months following the arrest information made its way to the public such as one of the burglars used to be a government security aide, another one had a $25 000 check that was supposed to go to Nixon's re-election campaign but in fact turned out that all of the burglars were on Committee to Re-Elect the President payroll. While all of this was happening Nixon was re-elected by a landslide, his last big win.

In May of 1973 the Senate opened up hearings on the Watergate break-in. It became a very damaging event to the President. One former White House Staff admitted that he had discussions with the President about Watergate and how they would cover it up. The next month it was found out that Nixon taped all of his conversations in the Oval Office. Nixon refused to hand over the tapes when the Senate requested. He attempted to tell them the key tape had a 18.5 minute gap on it then he tired to send written and edited transcripts of the tapes instead of the actual tapes.

Nixon realised he had himself in a corner and could only figure one way out. On August 8, 1974 Richard M. Nixon became the first U.S. President to resign. Gerald Ford who was Vice President took on the highest office of the land.

Nixon was the only ‘Watergate conspirator’ who spent no time in jail.

I'm not exactly sure of what President Nixon was thinking of when he thought he could cover something so big up. To break into another party's office to snoop around when you're running for President isn't the wisest thing to do. If he wanted to win so bad I'm sure he could have found another, more legal way of going about it.

Vietam War

The Vietnam War was the longest war in Untied States history. The hostilities claimed more the 58 000 American live while another 304 000 were wounded. The war was fought in Vietnam between 1959 and 1975. The war involved the North Vietnamese and the National Liberation Front who fought against the United States and the South Vietnamese army.

Between 1946 and 1954 the Vietnamese fought for their independence from France during the First Indochina War. After the war ended the country was divided into North and South Vietnam. The North Vietnam fell under control of the communists who were against France and who's aim was to unify Vietnam under a communist rule. South Vietnam was controlled by the Vietnamese who joined the French.

In 1965 the United States sent troops to prevent collapse of the South Vietnamese government. The United States was unable to do so and in 1975 Vietnam was reunified under Communist control becoming the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

During the Vietnam was between three and four million Vietnamese were killed, from both South and North Vietnam. About 2 million Lao and Cambodians were killed as well who were pulled into the war. 58 000 Americans died in the war. The cost of the war was over $150 billion dollars for something the whole country didn't agree on.

The War was not a full American war. The country itself was divided up and still is today on the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. I don't think it was needed to have the U.S. involved and instead the United Nations should have helped out the situation.

The American Century

The "American Century" was a term coined by Time magazine's publisher Henry Luce used to mark the United Stated during the twentieth century.

Nowadays the term is used to illustrate the U.S. dominance throughout most of the 20th century. It began in the Spanish-American War and the importance of the United States in World War II after the Pearl harbour attack. The power continued though the Cold War where their nuclear power was a dominant feature of their country and made them something to be afraid of along with Russia. The duo-superpower ended in the 90s when the USSR collapsed and left the United States to stand as a solo superpower.

The term refers to the political power as well as it's economic power and influence in the world throughout the century. Over the course of the century many countries would soon adopt the economic policies of the Washington Consensus.

Some people do not agree with this term saying it makes the roles played by the United States out to be much more than what they really were. Some critics have proposed the end of the American Century with the new millennium. The late Gonzo journalist Hunter S. Thompson titled his autobiography "Kingdom of Fear: Loathsome Secrets of A Star Crossed Child in the Last Days of the American Century".

The 1900s were extremely Americanized and almost anything big that happened in the century had something to do with the country in some way or another. They became the superpower that we know today and continue to strive. I agree with those who say it's going to end soon. I don't see it ending in the next few years but possibly in the next 50 years their power with slowly decline and another country will take their place over the next 150 years.

Joseph Stalin

In 1901 Joseph Stalin joined the Social Democratic Labour Party where he helped to organize the resistance against tsarism. On April 18, 1902 he was arrested for organizing a strike in a large factory. After 18 months in jail he was deported to Siberia. In 1904 Stalin escaped from Siberia and was soon back to organizing strikes.

Stalin was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committe from 1922 to 1953. After the party's leader, Lenin, died in 1924 Stalin promoted himseld as the political heir and swiftly made it up becoming the dictator of the Soviet Union.

As the dictato he forced collectivisation of agriculture and rapid industrialisation which increased the USSR's productivity and economic growth but cost many lives. During the 1930s stalin purged his party of the "enemies of the people" which resulted in the exile of milions to slave labour camps and the execution of thousands.

These purged caused many lost from the Red Army. Stalin was warned repeatedly but was still not prepared for Hilter's attack on the Soviet Union in June 1941.After the attack it looked like his future as the dictator hung in the balance until he recovered by leading his country to victory. The cost was many human lives but it seemed to matter very little to him.

After the war, the Soviet Union entered the time of nuclear weapons and ruled over an empired which included most of eastern Europe. Stalin became more paranoid and died of a stroke in March of 1953

I think Stalin was a ruthless dictator who didn't care much for his country. He just wanted himsef to seem like a god. He power took over his desire to help the people of his country and ended up costing many lives.

Russian Revolution

The Russian Revolution was a two-part revolution. It had the February Revolution and then the October Revolution. The revolution was the first overthrow of the tsarist autocracy and the overthrow of the liberal and socialist Provisional Government. After the revolution the Soviet power under control of the Bolshevik party was established in Russia. This lead to the Soviet Union until 1991.

The revolution started when the country's people had enough of the style of government at the time. On February 23, 1917 people at food queues started protest and were soon joined by women from textile factories who were protesting about the bread and food shortages. Most of the country went on strike and women stopped at factories that were not on strike to get the workers to join. By the 25th almost every business in the capital of Petrograd was shut down. This made the Duma government realise the problem and forced the Tsar to surrender his control.

On the morning of the 27th, the people on strike in the streets were joined by soldiers who were originally sent by the government to control the riots. The crowds out numbered the police and caused them to join the rioters. This left the power if the country with no military in the capital and the authority collapsed.

The October revolution was led by Lenin who based it on his writings of Karl Marx's theories. This began the spread of communism in the twentieth century. The October revolution was far less spontaneous than the February revolution. This one involved planning by the Bolshevik Party. On November 7, 1917 Lenin led the revolutionaries in a revolt against the already wounded Provisional Government. They then replaced the government with local councils electing groups of workers and peasants to become the Soviet government.

In March the tsar Nicholas and his family was placed under house arrest. After the Bolsheviks came into power during the October revolution their imprisonment became stricter. The next year on July 16, 1918 the family was taken into their basement and executed. This was directed from Lenin who was in Moscow at the time. The royal family was lined up as if to take a photo and were shot. It was believed to be chaotic due to the first few shots deflecting off jewels sown into the girls undergarments.

I think the Russian Revolution was needed in the country. They needed a new system that was for the people. This seemed to be the only way they could do it but it was an effective one to change power in the country to benefit the population.

Pearl Harbour

On December 7, 1941 the United States was surprised by an attack by the Empire of Japan's Carrier Striking Task Force. The attack was on the United States Pacific Fleet and their other armed forces that were stationed at Pearl Harbour in Oahu, Hawaii. This attack pushed the U.S. to declare war, entering the second world war the next day. They began the War in the Pacific.
The attack on Pearl Harbour left 2403 casualties and 1178 wounded. 3 destroyers, one mine layer, 5 battle ships and 188 air crafts were sunk or damaged in the attack. This is compared to Japan's 64 dead, one captured, 29 aircraft and 5 midget submarines lost.

It is believed the attack was to protect Japan's move into Singapore and the East Indies in attempt to secure her access to oil by keeping the U.S. Pacific Fleet from intervening.

After the attack it was rumoured that the Japanese cut arrows in the cane fields directing their pilots to the harbour. This idea was quickly put aside when the U.S. pilots said anyone who could find Oahu would have little difficulty finding the largest harbor in the Central Pacific.

I think the attack on Pearl Harbour was a bit idiotic. From what I know, the Japanese had no real reason and the attack just added another country to the war. It made the war bigger and no one wants anymore than what already's happening. If the Japanese would have left the States alone there's the big possiblity that the atomic bomb would have never been created and the destruction that came along with it may have been avoided but we'll never really know.

Hank Aaron

Henry Louis "Hank" Aaron was born on February 5, 1934 in Mobile, Alabama. He was always a baseball player. In his high school, Central High School, he helped lead his team to the Negro High School Championship both years he attended. In his late teens he was able to play on the semi-pro team as a shortstop and third baseman. While playing on this team a scout saw him and he signed a contract with the Mobile Black Bears for $3 a game. His mother wouldn't allow him to travel so the contract was only for the games played in and around the city.

On June 14, 1952 he signed with the Boston Braves and entered the minors. That same year he received the league's Rockie of the Year as the team's second baseman. In 1953 Aaron was sent to the Jacksonville Braves where he won the league's MVP Award. On April 13, 1954 Aaron made his major league debut against the Cincinnati Reds.

In July 1969 Aaron hit his 537th home run. This put him in third place on the career home run list behind Willie Mays and Babe Ruth. At season's end he finished third in the MVP ratings.

The heat to pass Babe Ruth got a lot hotter in the summer of 1973. At the age of 39 he hit 40 home runs in 281 at-bats that season. That gave him 713 career home runs at the end of the season. Over the winter he had to deal with many death threats and racist hate mail from people who didn't want to see a black man break Babe Ruth's home run record. This all went away when Babe Ruth's widow announced her late husband probably would have cheered him on.

In 1974 he was able to tie the home run record of 714 against the Reds and on April 8, 1974 in Atlanta he hit his 715th home run in the 4th inning. It landed in the Braves bullpen and cannons were fired in celebration. Two local college students ran along side Aaron around the diamond and even his mother ran out into the field as well.

On July 20, 1976, Aaron hit his 755th and final home run.

America needed some excitement in a time when things were a little rocky. I think Hank Aaron brought that excitement. He brought something to cause the right amount of controversy and reason to get revved up.

John F. Kennedy

John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born May 29, 1917. He was also known as John F. Kennedy, JFK, John Kennedy or Jack Kennedy. He was the 35th President of the U.S.A. in 1960 when he became the youngest man ever elected president.

Duringe his presidency he saw many things including the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis, Space Wars and the building of the Berlin Wall.

Before Kennedy was president, Eisenhower came up with a plan to overthrow Fidel Castro in Cuba known as the Bay of Pigs Invasion. This plan used 1500 anti-Castro Cubans who were trained by the U.S. to invade Cuba and start an uprising in Cuban people in hopes of removing Castro from power. The invasion lasted from April 17 - 19, 1961 without the authorization of Kennedy. Within the 3 days of the invasion the Cuban government had captured or killed invading Cubans. The U.S.A. was forced to work with the Cuban government to have the captured to be released. This resulted in $53 million dollars paid to Cuba.

The Cuban Missle Crisis began on October 14, 1962 when American U-2 planes flew over Cuba and took pictures of a Soviet intermediate-range ballistic missile site under construction. These pictures where shown to Kennedy who realized they were now threatened by nuclear missiles. Kennedy began negotiations with the USSR and ordered all the "defensive" materical to be removed from Cuba. Without doing so the country would have to face a naval blockade. The USSR agreed and Kennedy secretly agreed to remove missles from Turkey which had already be planned.

Kennedy was very eager to be in the race in space. Russia was far ahead in space technology but Kennedy set his first goal to and a man on the moon. It was ony six years after his death that an American landed on the moon.

John F. Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963 in Dallas Texas. Lee Harvey Oswald was charged with the crime but was murdered two days later by Jack Ruby. It is believed that Oswald was the only man but the House of Select Committee on Assassinations believed that their may have been conspiracy. The whole assassination remains quite controversial and there has been many theories put out about it.

I believe JFK was a very strong present and was able to guid his country around many things thrown at them. Within the 3 years he was president he was able to fend off possible nuclear attacks, negoitated his way out of a tough Cuban situation and instilled the goal to reach the moon in many Americans.

Saddam Hussein

Saddam Hussein was born on April 28, 1937 and was the president of Iraq from July 16, 1979 until April 9, 2003.

Hussein was born in the town of Al-Awhja, Iraq. His family was shepherds from the tribal group al-Begat.

In 1963 Ary officers related to the revolutionary Ba'ath Party which Hussein was part of overthrew Qassim, their original leader and Abdul Salam Arif was appointed president and in the same year was arrested. In 1964 Hussien was imprisoned. Just before and until 1968 he was the secretary of the Ba'ath party. He escaped from prison in 1967 and quickly became the newest leader of the party. In 1968 he lead a coup to take out Abdu Rahman Arif. It was said he never forgot the tensions within the first Ba'athist government. When promoting the Ba'ath party he made it known he wanted to maintain power and programs that would ensure social stability.

In the early 1970's Saddam moved up the ranks in the new government by taking lead in addressing the country's major domestic problems and created a larger following of the party. In 1972 he oversaw the control of the oil industry in the country and in the same year the price of oil skyrocketed making him even more admired. His main goal at the time was the modernization of the country. This included free schooling to the highest levels and hospitalization, support to the families of soldiers and farmers. He earned an award for this from the United Nations.

In a move to secure his power he forced al-Bakr to resign as president and took over presidency on July 16, 1979. He created a Western-influenced legal system, making Iraq the only country in the Persian Gulf area to not be ruled by traditional Islamic law.

U.S. President Bill Clinton was threatened by Hussein because of his threat to countries such as Saudi Arabia and Israel who are large oil allies to the States. He made numerous air-strikes on Iraq's No-Fly zones and hoped internal forces would overthrow the government. In 2002 President Bush announced he was going to take action to bring the Iraqi government down because of it's hostility towards the States and it's weapons of mass destruction. Within the first few weeks of the attacks the government collapsed but they failed to kill Hussein in at least two air-strikes.

Finally in April 2003 he was captured and was put on trail for committing crimes against residents of Dujail, the murder of 148 people, the torture of women and children, and the illegal arrest of 399 others, just to name a few. On December 30, 2006 he was hanged even though he wished to be shot which he believed to be a more dignified execution. It was carried out at "Camp Justice", an Iraqi army base in Kadhimiya, northeast of Bagad.

I think Saddam Hussein was an important figure in the pushing of modernization in Iraq and without him the country may have never changed for the better. At the same time I think he was possibly a bit too much of a dictator and didn't work with the country. He could have also retained from some of the acts he committed in order to "modernize" the country like the numerous murders and torture victims.

UNIT FOUR - Treaty of Versaille

The Treaty of Versailles was the official ending of the first World War. It was a peace treaty between the Allied Powers and Germany. The first thing to be signed was the armistice on November 11, 1918 that ended the fighting and then after six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference the peace treaty was concluded.

The treaty forced Germany to accept full responsibility of the war and was forced to pay for all the damage it had caused. There was three aims of this peace treaty: punishment, payment, and prevention. Germany should be punished because she started the war. With Germany being the aggressor, they should pay for the financial and human costs. And to insure a war with Germany never happens again they needed to prevent Germany from fighting.

The terms of the treaty were divided into four categories: territory, military, financial and general. Under territory many pieces of land were given back to its previous country or the League of Nations. Under military the German army couldn't exceed 100 000 men and they had to serve for 12-25 years. Germany was not allowed to have an air force and only 6 naval ships. They also had to demilitarize Rhineland which the Allies occupied for 15 years. Under general Germany was forced to accept the war guilt clause saying that they started the war. They were forced to rebuild France and Belgium.

The Germans felt they should have been consulted on the terms of the treaty while the Allies thought that since the Germans lost the war they didn't need to consult them.

I think the Treaty of Versailles had to be done but didn't need to be done in such a blaming fashion. Germany should have been punished but not in a way that tied them down and didn't let them be their own country. The should not have been pushed around by the Allies and made to pay up. This just caused the country to become upset and is a possible reason for the second world war. If they hadn't made Germany give up almost everything that made them their own country thing possibly could have stay neutral.

Mauritnia Project

COLONIZATION OF MAURITANIA

The French only bagan colonizing Mauritania in 1902 when Xavier Coppolani directed the French forces into Mauritania. This was done by pushing back all Mauritanian resistance. Coppolani took total control over the southern part of Mauritania. In 1903 the areas under his control were officially colonized by the French. This was done by befriending the dominate tribes of the area and temporarily allied with the tribal chiefs. Colonel Henri Gouraud followed Coppolani’s ideas closely until Coppolani’s assassination in 1905 then he continues Coppolani’s work further north and east of the already colonized areas. The colony was indirectly ruled by France through the Arabic chiefs and tribal chiefs of the area.

During the colonization most of the population remained nomadic but slowly the blacks began to return to southern Mauritania where there ancestors had orginally been expelled.

HISTORICAL SUMMARY

The French only became interested in Mauritania in the last half of the 16th century when French traders located in what is now Senegal traded with Arabic gum in southern Mauritania. The natives to the country paid little attention to the French because they did not affect them directly. At the start of the 20th century Cappolani directed French forces into Mauritania through force and Arab chiefs. The French allowed the colony to be directed by the already existing Arabic institutions. This continued until the 1940s when France implemented changes to standardize all the French West Africa.

In May of 1957 Mauritania developed its first government and chose its capital as Nouakchott. The capital was chosen due to its geographic location, almost exactly between the Senegal River Valley and Adar. These two regions were both in competing for the capital until a compromise was made. This was a great set-up for the future prime minister Daddah’s approach to political conflicts: compromise and conciliation for the sake of national unity.

On November 28th, 1960 Mauritania became independent from France. The country remained divided by the blacks who despised the Maure domination of the government. This led to the imposition of Arabic as the language of instruction in the country’s schools.

In 1975 Mauritania allied with Morocco against the Western Sahara army, the Polisario, in a war over the southern third of Western Sahara’s land called the Tiris al-Gharbia. After realizing the desert land was of no real use to them and Polisario’s attacks on Mauritania’s iron ore mines and the capital, the government continued the fight to the delight of the Maures. The blacks however opposed the war because they saw how it affected the agriculture in the south due to money spent on a hopeless fight and because the Maures used their higher ranking in the military as a way into the government creating further imbalances. After a change in prime minister the war ended with the signing of a peace treaty with Polisario and the country withdrawing from Tiris al-Gharbia

Slavery is abolished in 1980 with Lieutenant Colonel Haidalla as head of the government. Although this official, slavery is still practiced in small rural towns and areas with low population.
In 1986 the Forces de Liberation Africaine de Mauritanie (FLAM) published the Manifesto of the Oppressed Black Mauritanian. It accuses the white (minority) population of suppressing the black population. The government reaction to this rebuttal was the arrest of thirty FLAM members, charging them with “sowing hatred and confusion” which was “undermining the values and foundations of society”. Three were found guilty of attempting to over-through the government and were executed on December 3, 1987.

In 1989 the tension between Mauritania and Senegal over land grew. 200 Senegalese were killed by Mauritanian border guards. After which all Senegalese where expelled from the country with 50 000 black Mauritanians. Senegal then expelled 240 000 white Mauritanians from their country after looting and riots began in the border towns and cities of Senegal.

THE GAIN OF INDEPENDENCE

In 1958 the French Fifth Republic was established and required France to create a new constitution which included becoming an independent member of the French Community. At the same time the people of Mauritania adopted the same idea. The idea of this quickly lost its appeal when a nationalistic movement swept across the whole African continent. When the Islamic Republic of Mauritania was created in October 1958, the Territorial Assembly changed its name to the Constituent Assembly and began to work on a draft of a national constitution immediately. The draft was unanimously approved by the Constituent Assembly and on November 28, 1960 Mauritania became its own country.

In August 1961 elections where held and Daddah won and became the new head of government. In accordance to the new government’s objectives, Daddah was to include two blacks in his cabinet. The National Assembly was head by black and was comprised of ten blacks and twenty Maures. This was in attempt to bring the two groups together in unity.

GOVERNMENT

Zeine Ould Zeidane is the current prime minister of Mauritania. He was elected on April 20, 2007. He is the youngest person to campaign for prime minister in Mauritania. Being a new prime minister he has not made any changes to the country presently.

Before Zeidane, Sidi Mohamed Ould Boubacar was the prime minister from August 7, 2005 until April 20, 2007. Boubacar was part of the Parti Republicain Democratique et Renouvellement (PRDR). This party was originally in support of former president Taya and his pro-Israeli stance but the party has changed opinions on the stance since the mid 2006 military campaign in Lebanon. In legislative elections in October 2001 that party won 64 out of 81 seats. These elections were deemed injustice and not free.


ECONOMIC RESOURCES AND CHALLENGES

The gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in $345 but it is believed to be higher due to extensive smuggling in and out of the country. The total GDP of the country is $1 billion. Half of the population in Mauritania is below the poverty level and the unemployment rate is 21%.

Mauritania largely depends on agriculture and the raising of livestock as a resource. Through 1970 and 1980 Mauritania had recurrent droughts causing the farmers to move to the cities in hopes of finding a better way of life. Almost 50 percent of the country exports are made up of iron ore which is found in great quantity but the demands for this is declining and cut backs are made to production. Mines have also been built in the inside of the country for gold and copper because of the rise in metal prices. The country’s coastal waters are some of the riches fishing areas in the world. Sadly this great revenue is being threatened by the overexploitation by foreigners. Countries like Korean and Japan have exploited the country's fish exports by paying less than a proper price. The country opened its first deep water port in 1986 near the capital of Nouakchott. In the more recent history, drought and mismanagement of the country's economics has caused the country's $1.6 billion in foreign debt. In an attempt to fix this, the government has signed an agreement with the World Bank to better the country's economic structure.

DEMOGRAPHIC STATISTICS


Capital: Nouakchott

Official Languages: Standard Arabic
Hassaniya
French

Currency Ouguiya

Area: 1 030 700 km

Water 0.03% of area

Population: 3 069 000 (2005)
1 864 236 (1988)

Density: 3 people per kilometer

Male life expectancy: 50.5 years

Female life expectancy: 55 years

Independence date: November 28, 1960

UNIT TWO - Personality - Woodrow Wilson

Woodrow Wilson was born in Virginia in 1856 as the son of a Presbyterian minister. After graduation from Princeton (at the time called the College of New Jersey) and the University of Virginia Law School, Wilson earned his doctorate and began his career. In 1885 he married Ellen Louise Axson. His career quickly progressed as a professor of political science and in 1902 became the president of Princeton.

He was persuaded to run for Governor of New Jersey in 1910 and won. In 1912 he was nominated for President at the Democratic Convention and campaigned for the "New Freedom" program which pushed for individualism and rights. Wilson was able to put three major pieces of legislation through Congress: a lower on tariff, the Federal Reserve Act and a commission to prohibit unfair business practices. After, he continued to push through new laws in 1916. In 1916 he won a re-election very closely.

On April 2nd, 1917 Wilson asked Congress fro a declaration of war on Germany. Because of massive American effort the balance was tipped in favor of the Allies. He went before Congress again in January of 1918 to enunciate American war aims.

After the Germans signed the Armistice in the following November Wilson went to Paris to attempt to bring an enduring peace. He commented on the Versailles Treaty to the Senate "Dare we reject it and break the heart of the world?" but in the 1918 election the treaty failed by seven votes.

Against his doctors' warnings he made a national tour pushing for the public sentiment for the treaty. Because of the stress and fatigue this put on him he suffered a stroke and almost died. He was nursed by his second wife until he died in 1924.

From what I've learned about Wilson, it seems as if he was one of the less egoistical U.S. presidents and cared for the world as well as his country. He seems to push for things that were just as important then as they are today and the North American society can reflect upon the changes he made to laws for the better. Overall I think he was a pretty good guy.

UNIT TWO - Inventions - The Pop-Up Toaster

Toasting bread began as a method of prolonging the life of bread. Toasting bread was very common in Roman times where the name toast comes from. "Tostum" is the Latin word for scorching or burning bread.

The first electric toaster was invented by Crompton and Co. in 1893 and re-invented in 1909 in the United States. These toaster only toasted one side of the bread at a time and someone had to take the half toasted bread out, flip it over and put it back in. These toaster also didn't turn off so that same person who flipped the bread got to wait and judge if the toast was ready or not then turn off the toaster. The toaster was improved when Llyod Copeman and his wife introduced the toaster with an automatic bread turner in 1913.

In 1919 Charles Strite patented a toaster which ejects the toast after toasting it. In 1929 the Waters Genter Company redesigned Strite's toaster and introduced the Model 1-A-1 Toastermaster which was the first automatic toaster to pop-up and toast bread on both sides at the same time. The toaster had a heating element you would set on a timer and once the timer went off the toast would pop-up.

I think the toaster is a great invention. With toast you can have a variety of sandwiches and breakfast ideas. It give the regular and boring slice of bread a new take on life in a crunchy new form. Although not an invention to change the human race it is something yummy in your tummy.

UNIT TWO - Events - The Easter Rising

Early in 1914 Carsonite Volunteers with British sympathizers help ran large cargo of arms into Ireland. The British Government immediately prohibited the importation of arms into Ireland for fear the Nationalists would secure weapons that could be used against them.

The Irish then began to organize illegal shipments to Howth from the European continent. This was for a planned rising on Easter Sunday. On Easter Monday the Irish Republic was proclaimed in Dublin.

The Easter Monday Rising had no military prospects of success. There was the slight chance the Germans would break through England's defenses and allow help to be sent before the rising was crushed.

On Easter Monday morning, April 24, 1916 the Dublin battalions paraded with full arms and a day rations. just after noon, the General Post Office, the Four Courts, three railway terminals and other important points circling the center of Dublin were rushed and occupied. It was announced the establishment of the provisional government of the Irish Republic. Over night many other points of the city was taken over by rebels and by morning they controlled most of Dublin.

The British fought back on Tuesday when reinforcements arrived. Martial law was proclaimed in Ireland. The fighting in Dublin steadily removed the Irish from their positions. On April 29th the post office came under violent attack. The British soon realised they would not be able to conquer the Irish and that afternoon they surrender unconditionally.

The British leaders of the counter offense were put on trial when they arrived home in Britain. Most were executed, shot dead.

It is fair for Ireland to be its own country. There was no need for the British to want to control them and the organization of the Rising should that the Irish were able to do things on their own. The Irish knew that they could be their own country and if the Rising didn't occur then, it may have been more violent when it did later on.

UNIT TWO - Ideas - The Divine Right of Kings

The idea of the Divine Right of Kings is a very simple one. It means that all people or groups in power have been appointed by God(s). This concept is a European political and religious explanation of the laws related to political and religious leaders.

It was very big in medieval and ancient regime times. This concept states that the leader owes his ruling of the group or country to the will of God or Gods and is above the rulings of the parliament, the aristocracy or other forms of leaders. This idea also was that an attempt (either a failed or successful one) was an act against God and His will.

This idea is still used in the coronation of European monarchs, who's genealogy is traced back to King David of the Old Testament. The British Royal family is also under the divine right of kings with their family motto (translated) being "I rule with God's Blessing"

The basis for the Divine Right of Kings comes from Romans 13:1-2, which says "Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers. For there is no power but of God: the powers that be are ordained of God. Whosoever therefore resisteth the power, resisteth the ordinance of God: and they that resist shall receive to themselves damnation." In other words every order given by the king or queen must be obeyed as to not disobey God.

In my opinion I think the Divine Right of Kings is a very irrational idea. There is no proof that the leaders were actually 'chosen' by God or in anyway were directed by God. I do however believe it wouldn't be that hard an idea to convince people or to have them obey. It was a smart plan on behalf of the rulers of the world.

UNIT ONE - Event - Mexican Revolution of 1910

For most of Mexican history the country was controlled by a small minority people and the majority of the country worked and lived in poverty. The leader of the country at the time was General Díaz who did nothing when the gap between the poor and the rich grew even more. In 1910 he was pressured into an election where Francisco Madero was able to win a large number of votes. Díaz didn't like this and had him imprisoned on the idea that he didn't believe Mexico was ready for a democracy.

Once released from prison, Madero continued his fight against Díaz in attempt to overthrow him. He was helped by Pancho Villa from the north and Emiliano Zapata from the south who were able to gain control of their regions from the Mexican army. Díaz was unable to regain control of these areas and resigned in May of 1911 and fled to France.

Madero was elected president again but hen was opposed by Emiliano Zapata who no longer wished to wait for Madero's orders. In the same year Zapata denounced Madero as president and took the position over himself which led to the Mexican Revolution of 1916.

I think the Mexican Revolution was something that needed to happen. This one in particular was needed because although it was not as big as the one that followed in 1916, this smaller revolution prepared the country and it's people for a change. The country was bettered by this overthrow of the government that help save the country from discrimination of the lower class, which in time would have become worse than it was at the time.

UNIT ONE - Personalities - Mrs. Astor

Caroline Webster Schermerhorn Astor was born on September 22, 1830 in New York City. She was born into the city's Dutch aristocracy, related to the city's original settlers. She was raised in lower Manhattan until she was ten years old when her family moved to the then-fashionable Lafayette Place which was developed by her future father-in-law, William Backhouse Astor Sr. She married his son, William Backhouse Astor Jr. in 1854.

Although she was seen as a being preoccupied by the high society for her whole life, Mrs. Astor was busy raising her children and keeping house for the first few decades of her life. The family moved into a four-bay townhouse built by her husband in 1862 at 350 Fifth Avenue, the present location of the Empire State building, right beside her husband's brother even though the brothers never got along.

After the Civil War, New York seen a very large population growth and the immigrants and people moving from the Midwest challenged Mrs. Astor's "grand dame" of New York's high society. This sparked "Lina" to set and maintain the rule of social behaviour and etiquette. This outline was once used by the city to determine who from the Midwest were acceptable. It was said that among the rich families of New York there were only 400 people who could be counted as members of Fashionable Society. This was set by the limitations of Lina's New York City ballroom.

Mrs. Astor died on October 30, 1908 at the age of 78. During the last years of her life she suffered from periodic dementia. She was buried in the Trinity Church Cemetery in upper Manhattan. Her 39 foot tall cenotaph dominates the churchyard where many of the prominent early Americans are buried.

I think Mrs. Astor was an important person just not as important as everyone makes her out to be. I don't think that if I married a rich man in real estate I would be put in charge of the high society. She did shape what is expected of the rich and set the standard for "keeping up with the Joneses". But this can also be taken in a negative way and led to the conspicuous consumption and the unnecessary lifestyles of today's rich. It all depends on the way you look at things.

Reflection of Charlie Chaplin's "Modern Times"

How does Charlie Chaplin's "Modern Times" satirize life at the turn of century?

In the beginning of the movie "Modern Times" people are portrayed as sheep. It's just to show how we are treated like a herd of animals when it comes to the work world. Then it starts up and mocks the assembly line. Everything is put into high speed and making people work quicker. It is related to the idea of Taylorism because the whole idea is to get things done quicker and more efficiently. It also makes fun of the fact that in Taylorism everything is monitored closely by the boss and in the movie the boss has cameras everywhere including the bathroom. The cameras in the bathroom play with the fact that the assembly lines and work places were very dehumanizing at the turn of the century. There was a lack of privacy and no time for a short break. Charlie Chaplin's character worked tightening bolts in the assembly line. When he would walk away he would have the twiches and continued doing the tightening motions. The work was machine like in the fact that it was repeative and you did noting else. Workers also had very little rights and to push those rights was wrong even if you didn't realize you were pushing them like in the strike scene in the movie.

Overall the movie is highly dramaticized but true in my mind. I think workers were treated unfairly and somethings were just unrelevant to what needed to be done like the automatic feeding machines even though we all know those weren't real and the lack of break times.

UNIT ONE - Ideas - Taylorism

Taylorism is a method of work management used to improve productivity. It is also known as scientific management or the classical perspective. This idea was first coined by Frederick Winslow Taylor in his "The Principles of Scientific Management". He believed that decisions based on rules of thumb and tradition should be replaced by procedures developed after studying an individual.

Taylorism used a standard method to preforming each task at hand and select workers were chosen based on their abilities to preform each job after training. Work was planned and therefore eliminated interruptions. This style of work management allowed improvement. Everything was recorded and by doing this the employer could fine a more efficient way of work. Employers followed rules and procedures to enable predictable and reliable behaviour. It also started the importance of selection and training for individual jobs. The selection of employees were based on the individuals competence, training and/or experience. Taylorism helped define authority officially and hierarchy under a higher authority began.

I think Taylorism is good idea. It helped the progress in the workplace and lead to a more official and formal way of doing things. Without Taylorism things would take longer and employers would lose money paying people for wasted time.

UNIT ONE - Inventions - Windshield Wipers

The windshield wiper is an invention that you don't normally think about. Think about if your car didn't have windshield wipers. That wouldn't be too great, now would it?

In November of 1903 Mary Anderson patent the first windshield wiper. Her invention was able to clean snow, rain or sleet from the windshield using a handle inside your car. She thought up this invention when she visited New York City and noticed that the street car drivers had to open the windows to see. The first windshield wiper was a swinging arm with a rubber blade that could be operated from the inside. It became standard on all American cars by 1916. The first automatic windshield wiper was patented in 1917 by Charlotte Bridgewood as the "Storm Windshield Cleaner" but the product was not successful.

Now that people can see out of the window of their car will driving in the rain or snow we are able to travel whenever we wish. Travelling was important around the time of it's patent due to the progress and development of North America. With out out this, travel was a hassle.

I think the windshield wiper was an amazing invention. It may not have to been as a big a deal as the car itself but without them the car wouldn't be as convenient. Opening windows while driving down the highway so I could see out is not something that appeals to me, personally. Can you picture the inside of your car after going out to the other side of the city in the rain? This means the invention also saved us money on car repairs due to water damage.

What wonderful invention, the windshield wiper!

Why is studying the 20th century important?

History is an important part of human life because of the experience we gain by studying and learning from our mistakes. We can better ourselves by observing what worked in the past. We are able to take the ideas and run with them, changing ideas to make them suit our fast paced life and fix the mistakes made originally. We learn about our heritage and our own culture. It is important so that we don't allow ourselves to become Americanized or dominated by other countries. We are able to become our own individuals with a sense of our background.